Positive mood . The
Surgeon General’s Report also mentions the possibility of exercise
improving mood. Unfortunately the area of increased positive mood as a
result of acute and chronic exercise has only recently been investigated
and therefore there are no meta-analytic reviews in this area. Many
investigators are currently examining this subject and many of the
preliminary results have been encouraging. It remains to be seen if the
additive effects of these studies will result in conclusions that are as
encouraging as the relationship between exercise and the alleviation of
negative mood states like anxiety and depression.
Self-esteem . Related to the area of positive mood states is the area of physical activity and self-esteem. Although narrative reviews exist in the area of physical activity and enhancement of self-esteem, there are currently four meta-analytic reviews on this topic (Calfas & Taylor, 1994; Gruber, 1986; McDonald & Hodgdon, 1991; Spence, Poon, & Dyck, 1997). The number of studies in these meta-analyses ranged from 10 studies (Calfas & Taylor, 1994) to 51 studies (Spence et al., 1997). All four of the reviews found that physical activity/exercise brought about small, but statistically significant, increases in physical self-concept or self-esteem. These effects generalized across gender and age groups. In comparing self-esteem scores in children, Gruber (1986) found that aerobic fitness produced much larger effects on self-esteem scores than other types of physical education class activities (e.g., learning sports skills or perceptual-motor skills). Gruber (1986) also found that the effect of physical activity was larger for handicapped compared to nonhandicapped children.
Restful sleep . Another area associated with positive mental health is the relationship between exercise and restful sleep. Two meta-analyses have been conducted on this topic (Kubitz, Landers, Petruzzello, & Han, 1996; O’Connor & Youngstedt, 1995). The studies reviewed have primarily examined sleep duration and total sleep time as well as measures derived from electroencephalographic (EEG) activity while subjects are in various stages of sleep. Operationally, sleep researchers have predicted that sleep duration, total sleep time, and the amount of high amplitude, slow wave EEG activity would be higher in physically fit individuals than those who are unfit (i.e., chronic effect) and higher on nights following exercise (i.e., acute effect). This prediction is based on the “compensatory” position, which posits that “fatiguing daytime activity (e.g., exercise) would probably result in a compensatory increase in the need for and depth of nighttime sleep, thereby facilitating recuperative, restorative and/or energy conservation processes” (Kubitz et al., p. 278).
The sleep meta-analyses by O’Connor and Youngstedt (1995) and Kubitz et al. (1996) show support for this prediction. Both reviews show that exercise significantly increases total sleep time and aerobic exercise decreases rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. REM sleep is a paradoxical form in that it is a deep sleep, but it is not as restful as slow wave sleep (i.e., stages 3 and 4 sleep). Kubitz et al. (1996) found that acute and chronic exercise was related to an increase in slow wave sleep and total sleep time, but was also related to a decrease in sleep onset latency and REM sleep. These findings support the compensatory position in that trained subjects and those engaging in an acute bout of exercise went to sleep more quickly, slept longer, and had a more restful sleep than untrained subjects or subjects who did not exercise. There were moderating variables influencing these results. Exercise had the biggest impact on sleep when: (a) the individuals were female, low fit, or older; (b) the exercise was longer in duration; and (c) the exercise was completed earlier in the day (Kubitz et al., 1996).
Self-esteem . Related to the area of positive mood states is the area of physical activity and self-esteem. Although narrative reviews exist in the area of physical activity and enhancement of self-esteem, there are currently four meta-analytic reviews on this topic (Calfas & Taylor, 1994; Gruber, 1986; McDonald & Hodgdon, 1991; Spence, Poon, & Dyck, 1997). The number of studies in these meta-analyses ranged from 10 studies (Calfas & Taylor, 1994) to 51 studies (Spence et al., 1997). All four of the reviews found that physical activity/exercise brought about small, but statistically significant, increases in physical self-concept or self-esteem. These effects generalized across gender and age groups. In comparing self-esteem scores in children, Gruber (1986) found that aerobic fitness produced much larger effects on self-esteem scores than other types of physical education class activities (e.g., learning sports skills or perceptual-motor skills). Gruber (1986) also found that the effect of physical activity was larger for handicapped compared to nonhandicapped children.
Restful sleep . Another area associated with positive mental health is the relationship between exercise and restful sleep. Two meta-analyses have been conducted on this topic (Kubitz, Landers, Petruzzello, & Han, 1996; O’Connor & Youngstedt, 1995). The studies reviewed have primarily examined sleep duration and total sleep time as well as measures derived from electroencephalographic (EEG) activity while subjects are in various stages of sleep. Operationally, sleep researchers have predicted that sleep duration, total sleep time, and the amount of high amplitude, slow wave EEG activity would be higher in physically fit individuals than those who are unfit (i.e., chronic effect) and higher on nights following exercise (i.e., acute effect). This prediction is based on the “compensatory” position, which posits that “fatiguing daytime activity (e.g., exercise) would probably result in a compensatory increase in the need for and depth of nighttime sleep, thereby facilitating recuperative, restorative and/or energy conservation processes” (Kubitz et al., p. 278).
The sleep meta-analyses by O’Connor and Youngstedt (1995) and Kubitz et al. (1996) show support for this prediction. Both reviews show that exercise significantly increases total sleep time and aerobic exercise decreases rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. REM sleep is a paradoxical form in that it is a deep sleep, but it is not as restful as slow wave sleep (i.e., stages 3 and 4 sleep). Kubitz et al. (1996) found that acute and chronic exercise was related to an increase in slow wave sleep and total sleep time, but was also related to a decrease in sleep onset latency and REM sleep. These findings support the compensatory position in that trained subjects and those engaging in an acute bout of exercise went to sleep more quickly, slept longer, and had a more restful sleep than untrained subjects or subjects who did not exercise. There were moderating variables influencing these results. Exercise had the biggest impact on sleep when: (a) the individuals were female, low fit, or older; (b) the exercise was longer in duration; and (c) the exercise was completed earlier in the day (Kubitz et al., 1996).
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